复盘
托马斯
杰斐逊
土墩
考古
发掘
“复盘”托马斯杰斐逊对土墩的考古发掘文图/何文竞托马斯杰斐逊是美国第三任总统,他是著名政治家、教育家和科学家,独立宣言的主要起草者。在当选总统之前曾任弗吉尼亚州州长,1 7 8 1 年任期结束后撰写了弗吉尼亚笔记(Notes ontheState ofVirginia,该书最早在法国出版,时间为1784一1 7 8 5 年,后来又陆续在美国、英国、德国发行)。书中全面记载了弗吉尼亚州的地貌、物产、历史、人文等信息,有点类似中国的地方志。在“问题十一”谈论弗吉尼亚州的印第安人情况时,杰斐逊详细描述了他曾发掘过一座土墩,这也让他可以身于早期的考古学家之列,他的发掘和研究可以说是同时代最优秀的考古工作之一。托马斯杰斐逊画像(Notes on the Stateof Virginia,1801)英国著名考古学家惠勒(MortimerWheeler)对杰斐逊的这次发掘工作非常赞赏,在他的经典名著地球上的考古学(Archaeology from the Earth)中,更是认为杰斐逊是科学考古发掘第一人。因为惠勒等人的高度评价,一般的考古学史叙述中多会提及杰斐逊,而这种叙述往往多是直接引用惠勒的描述与评价,杰斐逊当时具体的工作细节却鲜为人知。关于这次发掘,中文版杰斐逊选集(商务印书馆,2 0 1 2 年)和弗吉尼亚笔记(商务印书馆,2 0 1 4 年)都有全文翻译,译文总体而言比较流畅,但可能由于译者对考古学的用词习惯和发掘方法不太熟悉,因此这节内容理解起来稍感不够准确,于是笔者找来1 8 0 1 年出STATEOFVIRGINIA.WITHANBTTHOMASYEFFERSONSIGHTHAMERUCANEDITIONBOSTONIPRINTEDSYDAPIDCARLIBLEPOTHOMASSANDREWS,JWEST,WESTGREENILBAR,WHTTE,SCO.ES&LARKIN,JNANCREDE,MANNINOLORINO,Bo;THOMAS UTHOMAS,Wapl,N H;WMBBMACANULTY,1801.Notes on the Stateof Virginia靡页考古人传奇34Legend版的Notes on theState of Virginia,对照原文,大致将这次著名的考古发掘情况做个“复盘”。需要说明的是,此前几乎所有提及这次发掘的书籍中都称发掘时间为1 7 8 4年(笔记的出版时间),然而正文中没有述及发掘时间,根据杰斐逊在前言中的描述可知笔记的第一稿在1 7 8 1 年就已完成,1 7 8 2 年冬作者曾做过修改和扩充,因此发掘时间很可能要早于1 7 8 4 年。发掘前的传统看法土墩在北美大陆是非常常见的一类文化遗存,有的是单纯用泥土堆筑而成,有的则包含一些石块,其中绝大部分土墩属于墓葬类遗址,是古代印第安人留下的重要“文化符号”之一,对土墩建造者的研究是美洲考古学研究的重要组成部分。在未做系统的考古发掘之前,18世纪人们对其成因主要有4 种看法:土墩里面集中埋葬了在该地的战争中死亡的人们的尸骸;这是一种印第安人的习俗一一每隔一段时间要把所有死者的骸骨集中安葬;因为土墩位于河边最柔软、最肥沃的草地上,所以应该是附近村镇居民建造的公共墓地;有一种印第安人的传说一一当他们定居一地后,第一个去世的人的遗体会被竖立安葬,在遗体四周堆土,使其不会倒下,第二个人再去世的话便挖掘一个通道,将他的尸体靠在第一个尸上,再用土掩埋,如此反复。对于以上的这些看法,杰斐逊决定用考古发掘的方法来验证它们的对错。初步发掘杰斐逊选择了他家附近的一座小土墩,这座土墩位于里瓦纳河(Ravenna,美国弗吉尼亚州中部詹姆斯河的一条约环壕探沟原始土墩土墩本体环壕2米黄色为垫土层、蓝色为石块层、红色为人骨层杰斐逊发掘土墩平剖面示意4NOTEB OWPIROINIA,143farybetwop them,yet do we alo learn that the Er.Some aleribed them to the coftom,faid to prerailigal,a natiop formerly inhabiting on the Ohio,weroamong the Indians,ofcolleting,ar certain periods theaf the fame original tock with the Five Nabions,andbones of all thcit dead,wherefoever depofited at thethar they partook alfo of tbe Tufearora laguzge.time of death,Others agin fuppofed then the gen.Thcir diadeas might,by long fiparation,hare becomeeral fepulchres fox towns,conjeetured to have benSo unlike as to be unintelligible to one apother.Weon or near thele grounds I and this opiaion was fup-know that in1712,the Five Nations received choported by the quality of the lands in which they areTwfcaroras into their confederacy,and made themfound,(thofe conftruted of carth being generally iathe Sixth Nation,They received the Meherrias andthe fofteft andmollfertile meadow-grounds oa riverTuteloes alo into their protetioo;and it is moftfidea)and by atradition,Gaid to be banded down fromprobable,that the remains of many other af the tnibes,the aboriginal Indians,that,when they fettled inaof wbom we find no paricutar account,retired well.lown,the firf perlon who dicd was placed eret,andwardly in like manner,and were incorporated withearth put about him,fo as to cover and fapport him?one or other of thewellera tribes(s)that when another died,m marrow pafage was dug toI know of no fuch thing exifting as an Indian mon-the firf,the fecond reclined againft him,and the corument:for I would not honor with that name ar.er of earth replaced,and fo on.There being one ofrow points,alone hatchets,ftone pipes,and half-tbap.thde in my neighborhood,I witbed to fatify myfelfen images.Of labor on the large fcale,Ichink therewhetber any,and whicb of thele opinioas were jaftis no remainasrefpeltableatwouldbeacommoaFor this purpofe Idetermined to opea andexamineditch for the draining of lands,unlefe indeed it wouldit thoroughly.It was fituated on the low groandi ofbe the Barows,of which manyare to be Sound all.the Rivanna,aboal twe miles abore iu principal fork,over in this country.,Thele are of diferent fizes,and oppofne to fome kill,on which had been an In.fome of them conitruded of earth,and fome of loofedian town.It wa of a fpberiodical forn,of aboutftones,That they were repofitories of thedead,has4o fect diameter at tbe bale,and Kad been of aboutbeen obvious to all:but on what particular occafiomtwelre feet altitnde,though now reduced by theconllruled,was mater of doubtSomehaveplough to feven and a haf,baving beea ander culistbought they corered the bones of thofe who hareration about a dozen years.Before this it was cor-fallen in batles fought on the fpot of intermentered with trecs of twelve inchea diameter,and roundSomethe bale wau an ecavation of five fect depth andoidts,Noteson theStateof Virginia 中关于杰斐逊发掘工作的记载67.8公里长的支流)的低地上,附近曾有过一个印第安人小镇。这座土墩平面呈椭圆形,底部直径约1 2.2 米,原高约3.7米,由于耕作活动的破坏,杰斐逊发掘时土墩残高只剩下约2.3米。土墩周围还有一个环壕,环壕宽、深约为1.5 米(长度杰斐逊均记作英尺,这里换算为米),他认为土墩上的堆土即取自这个环壕杰斐逊一开始的发掘工作方法是不太严谨的,他随意地选择了几处发掘点做了简单的发掘,在距土墩现地表0.9 一1.8米处发现了不少人骨,这些人骨比较杂乱,没有固定的葬式或规律可循,人骨中有一些是少年和婴儿的骨骼。有的头骨里面还发现小趾骨,说明这些人可能经过迁葬。杰斐逊在笔记中用了大量笔墨描述这些人骨的保存状况和形态特征。探沟解剖为了能够了解土墩的结构,杰斐逊决定开一条探沟解剖土墩。这条探沟从土墩边缘一直开到距离土墩中心约0.9 米处,宽度不详,杰斐逊的记录是“可容一人通过”。探沟的深度一直发掘到与周边原始地面齐平。探沟最底层发现了一些人骨,上面覆盖少量石块,杰斐逊认为这些石块是从4 0 0 米之外运来的,石块上面覆了一层厚土,覆土上又叠压一层人骨,如此反复。探沟的一侧剖面上发现4 层人骨,另外一侧则只发现了3层人骨。骨骼上没有发现武器留下的伤痕,所以推测该地埋葬了战争中阵亡的战士,或是认为村庄定